AGM Batteries vs. Deep Cycle Batteries: Performance, Pros, and Applications Explained

An AGM battery can be a deep-cycle battery, but not all are made for this. AGM batteries allow a depth of discharge (DoD) up to 80%, enabling deeper cycling compared to flooded batteries, which offer a DoD of 50%. AGM batteries are also popular for starter applications due to their performance and reliability.

On the other hand, deep cycle batteries are built to discharge slowly over a longer period. They contain thicker plates to withstand repeated deep discharges. This trait makes deep cycle batteries ideal for renewable energy systems, marine applications, and recreational vehicles, where consistent energy supply is crucial.

Both battery types have unique advantages. AGM batteries are resistant to vibration and temperature changes, offering reliability in challenging environments. Deep cycle batteries excel in longevity and energy capacity, supporting extensive use.

Understanding the performance, benefits, and applications of AGM batteries versus deep cycle batteries helps individuals choose the right option for their needs.

In the following section, we will delve deeper into specific scenarios where each battery type excels, providing examples to illustrate their real-world applications and effectiveness.

What Are AGM Batteries and How Do They Work?

AGM batteries, or Absorbent Glass Mat batteries, are a type of sealed lead-acid battery. They use fiberglass mats to absorb the electrolyte, which makes them maintenance-free. AGM batteries work by allowing for a controlled release of energy, leading to quick charging and discharging capabilities.

Key points regarding AGM batteries include:
1. Construction
2. Advantages
3. Applications
4. Comparison with other battery types
5. Charging requirements

AGM Batteries: Construction
AGM batteries consist of lead plates and electrolyte that are absorbed in fiberglass mats. This structure reduces the risk of spillage and makes them suitable for use in various positions. The glass mat helps to immobilize the electrolyte, contributing to the battery’s reliability.

AGM Batteries: Advantages
AGM batteries offer several advantages. They are sealed and maintenance-free, which means they do not require water replenishment. Additionally, they have a low self-discharge rate, allowing them to maintain their charge for longer periods. According to a study by the Battery University (2021), AGM batteries can withstand higher temperatures compared to traditional lead-acid batteries.

AGM Batteries: Applications
AGM batteries are commonly used in renewable energy systems, such as solar power. They also find applications in uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), electric vehicles, and marine systems. For instance, many RV owners prefer AGM batteries due to their safety and ability to be mounted in confined spaces.

AGM Batteries: Comparison with Other Battery Types
When compared to other types of batteries, AGM batteries offer advantages in safety and durability. Unlike flooded lead-acid batteries, AGM batteries do not leak and can operate in various orientations. However, they are typically more expensive upfront. Conversely, lithium-ion batteries outperform AGM batteries in weight and energy density but also carry higher costs and require more sophisticated charging systems.

AGM Batteries: Charging Requirements
Charging AGM batteries requires specific voltage settings. Recommended charging voltages typically range from 14.4V to 15V for bulk charging, while float charging should be around 13.2V to 13.8V. Overcharging can damage AGM batteries, leading to reduced lifespan. Understanding these requirements is crucial for achieving optimal performance and prolonging battery life.

In summary, AGM batteries combine safety, efficiency, and versatility, making them ideal for various applications, although their cost and charging requirements should be considered.

How Do AGM Batteries Differ from Conventional Batteries?

AGM batteries differ from conventional batteries primarily in their design, maintenance requirements, performance characteristics, and safety features.

  1. Design:
    – AGM stands for Absorbent Glass Mat. It uses fiberglass mats to absorb and hold the electrolyte.
    – Conventional batteries typically use flooded lead-acid cells where liquid electrolyte freely circulates.

  2. Maintenance:
    – AGM batteries are sealed, maintenance-free, and do not require water refilling.
    – Conventional batteries generally require periodic maintenance, including electrolyte level checks and water additions.

  3. Performance:
    – AGM batteries exhibit a lower self-discharge rate, often around 3% per month, compared to approximately 5-10% for conventional batteries.
    – AGM batteries can deliver higher discharge rates. They provide more power in short bursts, which is beneficial for applications like starting engines.

  4. Lifespan:
    – AGM batteries typically last longer, averaging 5 to 7 years with proper care.
    – Conventional batteries usually have a lifespan of 3 to 5 years, depending on usage and maintenance.

  5. Safety:
    – AGM batteries are less prone to leaks and fumes, making them safer for indoor use.
    – Conventional batteries can release hydrogen gas during charging, posing a risk of explosion if not managed properly.

  6. Weight:
    – AGM batteries are usually lighter than conventional batteries, making them easier to handle and install.
    – Conventional batteries tend to be heavier due to the liquid electrolyte and overall construction.

The differences outlined above reflect the specific advantages of AGM batteries, such as their efficiency, safety, and lower maintenance needs, which make them a popular choice for various applications, including renewable energy systems and electric vehicles.

What Are Deep Cycle Batteries and Their Functions?

Deep cycle batteries are specially designed to provide a steady amount of power over an extended period. They are commonly used in applications that require deep discharge and recharge cycles, such as in solar energy systems, electric vehicles, and recreational vehicles.

Main types of deep cycle batteries include:
1. Flooded Lead Acid (FLA)
2. Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM)
3. Gel batteries
4. Lithium-ion batteries

Each type offers unique benefits and limitations, leading to various opinions on their suitability based on specific needs or preferences. For example, while flooded lead acid batteries are often praised for their cost-effectiveness, lithium-ion batteries are regarded for their longer lifespan and lighter weight. However, some users may prefer AGM or gel batteries due to their maintenance-free nature and resistance to spills.

  1. Flooded Lead Acid (FLA):
    Flooded lead acid (FLA) batteries are a traditional type of deep cycle battery that uses liquid electrolyte to power the battery. These batteries are popular due to their low initial cost and robust performance in applications with high discharge rates. According to a report by the Battery University, FLA batteries can typically deliver around 5-10 years of service life with proper maintenance, including regular water topping. However, they require ventilation and can spill if tipped over, making them less suitable for confined spaces.

  2. Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM):
    Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM) batteries utilize a glass mat to absorb the electrolyte, allowing for a maintenance-free experience. They have lower internal resistance, which enables faster charging and higher cranking power, making them ideal for vehicles and renewable energy systems. As noted by the Electric Power Research Institute, AGM batteries generally last 3-5 years longer than FLA batteries. Their sealed design makes them more versatile, but they come at a higher price point.

  3. Gel Batteries:
    Gel batteries are a variation of lead acid batteries that use a silica-based gel as the electrolyte. This design provides enhanced safety since they are less prone to leakage and damage. Gel batteries have a slower charge time and generally offer longer life cycles compared to flooded lead acid batteries. According to a study by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, gel batteries can provide 300-500 cycles at a depth of discharge of 50%, which is comparable to AGM batteries. However, they can be sensitive to overcharging, which may reduce their lifespan.

  4. Lithium-ion Batteries:
    Lithium-ion batteries represent the latest technology in deep cycle storage. They are known for their high energy density, lightweight design, and longer lifespan, often exceeding 10 years with proper use. Their rapid charge and discharge capabilities make them suitable for applications with high energy demands. The Department of Energy highlights that lithium-ion batteries have a cycle life ranging from 2000 to 5000 cycles depending on usage. However, their high upfront cost may deter some users, despite their long-term efficiency.

These diverse types of deep cycle batteries cater to a wide range of applications. Each offers distinct advantages and disadvantages, influencing user preference and application choice.

How Do Deep Cycle Batteries Differ from Regular Batteries?

Deep cycle batteries differ from regular batteries mainly in their design and intended use; deep cycle batteries are engineered to provide sustained power over extended periods, while regular batteries are designed for short bursts of energy. Their distinctions can be highlighted through the following points:

  1. Purpose: Deep cycle batteries are designed to discharge energy slowly and provide consistent power over long durations. Regular batteries, such as starter batteries, deliver quick bursts of power needed to start engines.

  2. Construction: Deep cycle batteries have thicker lead plates and a denser active material. This structure allows them to withstand repeated discharge and recharge cycles without significant loss of capacity. In contrast, regular batteries have thinner plates designed for quick bursts of energy, which can wear out faster.

  3. Depth of Discharge: Deep cycle batteries can typically be discharged up to 80% of their capacity without damaging the battery. Regular batteries should only be discharged about 20% to maintain functionality and lifespan.

  4. Lifespan: Deep cycle batteries generally last between 4 to 10 years with proper maintenance and usage. Regular batteries tend to have shorter lifespans, averaging around 3 to 5 years due to their different energy discharge demands.

  5. Application: Deep cycle batteries are commonly used in applications such as recreational vehicles, marine systems, and renewable energy setups, where prolonged energy supply is essential. Regular batteries are mainly found in automotive applications where high, short spikes of power are required to start an engine.

These differences are crucial for selecting the appropriate battery type for specific applications, ensuring efficiency, longevity, and effectiveness in energy storage and usage.

Are AGM Batteries Classified as Deep Cycle Batteries?

Yes, AGM batteries can be classified as deep cycle batteries. Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM) batteries provide reliable, steady power over extended periods. Their design allows them to be deeply discharged and recharged repeatedly, similar to traditional deep cycle batteries.

AGM batteries and standard deep cycle batteries share essential characteristics. Both types are designed for repetitive charging and discharging cycles. AGM batteries have a sealed design that prevents liquid spills and allows for safe operation in various orientations. However, unlike typical flooded lead-acid deep cycle batteries, AGM batteries do not require maintenance. They also tend to charge faster and provide better performance in cold temperatures.

The benefits of AGM batteries are notable. They are efficient in energy delivery and exhibit low self-discharge rates, meaning they retain charge longer when not in use. A study by Battery University (2021) indicates that AGM batteries can withstand more than 500 cycles at 50% depth of discharge. This durability makes them ideal for applications such as renewable energy systems, mobility devices, and backup power solutions.

On the other hand, AGM batteries have some drawbacks. They are generally more expensive than conventional deep cycle batteries. According to a 2020 report by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, AGM batteries can cost up to 40% more than traditional flooded batteries. Additionally, AGM batteries may not withstand overcharging as effectively, which can shorten their lifespan if not monitored properly.

When choosing between AGM and traditional deep cycle batteries, consider your specific needs. If you require a maintenance-free, efficient power source and are willing to invest more upfront, AGM batteries are a solid choice. However, if cost is a primary concern, and you can manage regular maintenance, traditional flooded batteries may be more suitable.

What Are the Key Features of Deep Cycle AGM Batteries?

The key features of deep cycle AGM batteries include their ability to provide consistent power over extended periods, excellent cycle stability, low self-discharge rates, maintenance-free operation, and safety standards against leakage.

  1. Consistent power delivery
  2. Excellent cycle stability
  3. Low self-discharge rates
  4. Maintenance-free operation
  5. Safety against leakage and spills

The features listed above highlight the strengths and weaknesses of deep cycle AGM batteries. These attributes make them suitable for various applications, but they also come with certain trade-offs compared to other battery types.

1. Consistent Power Delivery:
Consistent power delivery is a primary feature of deep cycle AGM batteries. This type of battery is designed to provide a steady amount of energy over extended discharge periods. Unlike starter batteries, which deliver short bursts of high energy, deep cycle AGM batteries can discharge 50% or more of their capacity while maintaining performance. This characteristic is crucial for applications such as renewable energy systems or marine use, where prolonged power is necessary.

2. Excellent Cycle Stability:
Excellent cycle stability defines the capacity of AGM batteries to handle numerous charging and discharging cycles effectively. Typically, deep cycle AGM batteries can endure 500 to 1,200 cycles at 50% depth of discharge, depending on the model and usage conditions. According to a study by the Battery University (2021), this durability positions AGM batteries as favorable for uses in electric vehicles and solar energy systems, where frequent cycling occurs.

3. Low Self-Discharge Rates:
Low self-discharge rates are a significant advantage of deep cycle AGM batteries. Self-discharge refers to the loss of charge that occurs when a battery is not in use. AGM batteries typically maintain a discharge rate of around 2-3% per month, making them ideal for seasonal or standby applications. For example, an off-grid home using solar power can store energy during the sunny months and rely on battery reserves through the less sunlit seasons without rapid energy depletion.

4. Maintenance-Free Operation:
Maintenance-free operation is another attractive feature. Deep cycle AGM batteries are sealed, preventing electrolyte loss and eliminating the need for water refilling. This characteristic enhances user convenience and safety, making them especially suitable for installations in hard-to-reach areas or applications where regular monitoring may be challenging. As a result, users in various sectors—like telecommunications and camping—benefit from their low-maintenance demands.

5. Safety Against Leakage and Spills:
Safety against leakage and spills is essential in many applications. AGM technology uses a glass mat to absorb the electrolyte, making these batteries spill-proof. This feature allows for safer operation in different environments, including confined spaces or applications involving sensitive equipment. According to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), this aspect significantly reduces risks associated with hazardous materials, which is particularly relevant in marine or automotive contexts.

In summary, deep cycle AGM batteries provide reliable power delivery, exceptional durability, low maintenance needs, and safety features that cater to various applications.

What Are the Benefits of Using AGM Batteries Over Deep Cycle Batteries?

The benefits of using AGM batteries over deep cycle batteries include better performance, longer lifespan, and improved safety features.

  1. Enhanced performance
  2. Longer lifespan
  3. Faster charging
  4. Lower maintenance
  5. Improved safety
  6. Versatility in applications

AGM batteries and deep cycle batteries have distinct characteristics that make them suitable for different applications. Understanding their features can help in selecting the right battery type for specific needs.

  1. Enhanced Performance:
    Enhanced performance refers to the superior power delivery and efficiency of AGM batteries. AGM stands for Absorbent Glass Mat, which is a technology that immobilizes the electrolyte, resulting in lower internal resistance. This translates to higher discharge rates and better performance in high-demand scenarios such as starting engines. According to a 2019 report from Battery University, AGM batteries can achieve up to 2000 cycles compared to only 600 for traditional lead-acid deep cycle batteries.

  2. Longer Lifespan:
    Longer lifespan is a significant advantage of AGM batteries. AGM batteries generally last 3-5 years longer than deep cycle batteries due to their sealed design and robust construction. The Battery Council International states that proper maintenance can extend the life of AGM batteries up to 10 years. This longevity offers better value over time, reducing the frequency of replacement and associated costs.

  3. Faster Charging:
    Faster charging indicates that AGM batteries can be recharged more quickly than deep cycle batteries. Their low internal resistance enables them to accept higher charge rates without risking damage, allowing for quicker recovery and utilization. As per a study by the University of Michigan, AGM batteries can recharge up to 30% faster, making them more efficient for applications requiring quick turnaround.

  4. Lower Maintenance:
    Lower maintenance characterizes AGM batteries as needing less attention than deep cycle counterparts. AGM batteries are sealed and do not require water replenishment, making them more user-friendly. This feature reduces the overall maintenance effort for users, particularly for those using batteries in difficult-to-access locations.

  5. Improved Safety:
    Improved safety describes the more secure operation of AGM batteries. These batteries are designed to be free from spills and leaks due to their sealed construction, making them safer for both indoor and outdoor use. The National Fire Protection Association has noted that AGM batteries less frequently face thermal runaway, a condition that can cause battery failure and fires.

  6. Versatility in Applications:
    Versatility in applications highlights the wide range of uses for AGM batteries compared to deep cycle batteries. AGM batteries can serve in various areas, including applications in solar energy systems, electric vehicles, and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). Their ability to perform well in varied conditions adds to their appeal for both commercial and residential users.

In What Scenarios Do AGM Batteries Outperform Deep Cycle Batteries?

AGM batteries outperform deep cycle batteries in several specific scenarios. First, AGM batteries excel in high discharge applications. They provide a steady current and recover quickly from deep discharges. Second, AGM batteries perform better in extreme temperatures. They maintain efficiency in both hot and cold environments. Third, AGM batteries require less maintenance. They do not emit gases and have a lower risk of leaks. Fourth, AGM batteries are more durable and resistant to vibrations. They withstand rough handling, making them suitable for mobile applications. Lastly, AGM batteries can charge faster than deep cycle batteries. This advantage makes them ideal for systems with limited charging time. Overall, AGM batteries are optimal for situations requiring reliability, durability, and efficiency.

How Do Applications for AGM and Deep Cycle Batteries Compare?

AGM (Absorbent Glass Mat) batteries and deep cycle batteries serve different purposes and exhibit distinct characteristics suited for various applications. AGM batteries are preferred for applications requiring rapid discharge and rechargeable efficiency, while deep cycle batteries excel in prolonged discharges and frequent deep discharging.

AGM batteries offer specific advantages:
Rapid discharge ability: AGM batteries can deliver high bursts of power. This makes them suitable for applications such as starter batteries in vehicles and for powering electronic devices.
Low maintenance: AGM batteries are sealed and require minimal maintenance compared to traditional lead-acid batteries. This is because they do not lose water during operation.
Enhanced safety: AGM batteries are spill-proof and have reduced gas emissions. This makes them safer for use in enclosed spaces.

Deep cycle batteries provide unique benefits:
Longevity: Deep cycle batteries are designed for repeated deep discharges. They can last much longer under conditions of consistent discharging and recharging.
Stable power supply: These batteries deliver a steady amount of power over an extended period. This characteristic is beneficial for applications like RVs, marine usage, and renewable energy systems.
Greater depth of discharge: Deep cycle batteries can regularly discharge to low levels without damage. They typically have a greater cycling capability compared to standard batteries.

Choosing between AGM and deep cycle batteries depends on application needs. AGM batteries are ideal for applications that require quick energy delivery and low maintenance, while deep cycle batteries are better suited for applications that demand prolonged energy release and longevity.

Which Industries Primarily Utilize AGM and Deep Cycle Batteries?

AGM (Absorbent Glass Mat) and deep cycle batteries are primarily utilized in several key industries.

  1. Renewable Energy
  2. Marine
  3. Automotive
  4. Telecommunications
  5. Medical Equipment
  6. Electric Vehicles
  7. Recreational Vehicles (RVs)
  8. Security Systems

The diverse applications of AGM and deep cycle batteries highlight their significance across multiple sectors, allowing a deeper understanding of their functionalities and uses.

  1. Renewable Energy: AGM and deep cycle batteries play a crucial role in renewable energy systems. These batteries store energy collected from renewable sources like solar panels or wind turbines. This stored energy can be used when production is low or demand is high. According to a report by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in 2022, battery storage allows for a more reliable energy supply.

  2. Marine: AGM batteries are often favored in the marine industry due to their resistance to vibration and leakage. Boat owners use them to power boats and provide energy for essential systems while minimizing maintenance. A 2021 article from Practical Sailor showed that AGM batteries extend the lifecycle of marine equipment due to their durability under harsh conditions.

  3. Automotive: In the automotive sector, deep cycle batteries are used for vehicles that require multiple electric systems to function efficiently. They can support appliances without depleting the main vehicle battery. For example, RVs can power lights and refrigerators without risking starting the engine. The Battery Council International provides data indicating that proper maintenance can enhance the battery life span significantly in this context.

  4. Telecommunications: AGM batteries are vital in the telecommunications industry. They provide backup power for telecom systems, ensuring continuous operation during outages. A study conducted by the Telecommunications Industry Association in 2021 reiterated the importance of a reliable power source for maintaining communication networks.

  5. Medical Equipment: Deep cycle batteries are used in medical equipment that requires consistent and reliable power. They support devices like hospital beds and mobility scooters. The American Medical Association emphasizes the necessity of maintaining power for life-support systems, where battery reliability is critical.

  6. Electric Vehicles: In electric vehicles (EVs), AGM batteries contribute to starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) functions. Recent advancements are enhancing the performance of AGM batteries in this sector. The International Council on Clean Transportation, in a 2022 study, noted the contribution of these batteries to the efficiency and functionality of EVs.

  7. Recreational Vehicles (RVs): Deep cycle batteries are essential for RVs, providing power for various appliances while parked. Users rely on their capacity to sustain energy for longer trips, making them preferable. According to a report by RVIA in 2022, RV owners often choose deep cycle batteries for their resilience and power capacity.

  8. Security Systems: AGM batteries are widely used in security systems, providing backup power during outages. These systems ensure surveillance and security devices remain operational. According to a report by the Security Industry Association in 2020, the reliability of AGM batteries makes them a trusted choice for securing premises.

Which Battery Type Should You Choose, AGM or Deep Cycle?

The choice between AGM (Absorbent Glass Mat) and deep cycle batteries depends on your specific needs and applications. Each type has unique advantages and disadvantages.

  1. Cost
  2. Maintenance
  3. Lifespan
  4. Depth of Discharge (DoD)
  5. Weight and Size
  6. Applications
  7. Environmental Impact

Understanding these key points can help guide your decision-making process regarding battery selection.

  1. Cost:
    AGM batteries typically cost more than standard deep cycle batteries. The higher cost is attributed to advanced technology and materials used in AGM batteries. Consumers seeking budget options may favor deep cycle batteries, but they may incur higher replacement costs over time.

  2. Maintenance:
    AGM batteries require minimal maintenance. They are sealed and do not require water replenishment. In contrast, traditional deep cycle batteries may need regular maintenance to ensure optimal performance, adding to the owner’s responsibilities.

  3. Lifespan:
    AGM batteries often have a longer lifespan compared to deep cycle batteries. AGM batteries can last up to 5-7 years, while deep cycle batteries may only last 3-5 years. This longevity makes AGM batteries a potentially better investment for users requiring long-term reliability.

  4. Depth of Discharge (DoD):
    AGM batteries can safely discharge to a greater depth than traditional deep cycle batteries. AGM batteries can achieve 80-90% DoD, whereas deep cycle batteries typically manage around 50-70% DoD. This characteristic allows for more effective use in applications with extensive energy needs.

  5. Weight and Size:
    AGM batteries tend to be lighter and more compact than standard deep cycle batteries. This feature is crucial for users with weight-sensitive applications, such as in recreational vehicles or boats. Users focused on space efficiency may prefer AGM batteries.

  6. Applications:
    AGM batteries excel in applications demanding a quick recharge and high performance, like in UPS systems and healthcare devices. Deep cycle batteries are more suited for applications that require sustained power over a longer period, such as solar energy systems or marine use.

  7. Environmental Impact:
    AGM batteries are generally considered more environmentally friendly. They are designed to be leak-proof and are often recycled more effectively than traditional batteries. Deep cycle batteries can pose environmental risks if mishandled during disposal.

Selecting the right battery hinges on understanding each type’s characteristics and evaluating them against your own requirements.

What Factors Should Influence Your Battery Selection Between AGM and Deep Cycle?

The choice between AGM (Absorbent Glass Mat) and deep cycle batteries depends on specific needs and circumstances. Key factors include application, discharge depth, maintenance, cost, and lifespan.

  1. Application Suitability
  2. Discharge Depth
  3. Maintenance Requirements
  4. Cost Consideration
  5. Lifespan and Reliability

When selecting between AGM and deep cycle batteries, consider the diverse perspectives associated with each factor.

  1. Application Suitability:
    Application suitability refers to the specific use cases for which each battery type is designed. AGM batteries excel in situations requiring high burst discharge, such as starting engines or powering electronics in recreational vehicles. Deep cycle batteries, however, are ideal for applications needing sustained power over a longer duration, such as in solar energy storage systems or electric golf carts.

  2. Discharge Depth:
    Discharge depth is the extent to which a battery can be depleted relative to its total capacity. AGM batteries typically handle shallow discharges well and can provide high performance for short periods. Deep cycle batteries, on the other hand, are designed to be deeply discharged, often up to 80% depth of discharge, making them a better choice for applications where prolonged energy use is necessary.

  3. Maintenance Requirements:
    Maintenance refers to the care needed to ensure optimal battery performance. AGM batteries are maintenance-free, as they do not require water topping or equalization. Deep cycle batteries, especially flooded lead-acid types, require regular maintenance to maintain optimal function and longevity. This factor can heavily influence choices based on the user’s willingness to perform regular upkeep.

  4. Cost Consideration:
    Cost consideration includes the initial purchase price and long-term value. AGM batteries typically cost more upfront but may offer better lifespan and performance, potentially reducing replacement frequency. Deep cycle batteries tend to be less expensive but may require more frequent replacements or maintenance costs over time, impacting overall value.

  5. Lifespan and Reliability:
    Lifespan and reliability encompass how long the battery operates before needing replacement and how consistently it performs under different conditions. AGM batteries often have a longer lifespan and better resistance to vibration and extreme temperatures. Deep cycle batteries can vary significantly in lifespan based on quality and usage, with higher-end models providing competitive longevity but requiring proper maintenance.

In conclusion, the decision between AGM and deep cycle batteries involves careful consideration of these factors based on individual needs and applications.

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